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The first Europeans to arrive in Nhật bản did so by accident rather than design. In 1543 a Portuguese ship was blown off course by a typhoon, shipwrecking the sailors on the island of Tanegashima, off the south-west tip of Nhật bản. Eager to trade with Nhật bản, the Portuguese soon established more formal traffic through the port of Nagasaki, and in 1549 the Jesuit priest Francis Xavier (1506 – 52) arrived in the country to found the first Christian mission.
Nội dung chính Show- What was one of the main criticisms of the early models of the diffusion of innovations?What is it called when every individual in society decides to adopt an innovation by themselves?When an individual decides to start using an innovation to achieve a specific goal this is referred to as diffusion?Which of the following factors is central for the diffusion of innovations?
For the Japanese, any initial feelings of alarm caused by the appearance of the nanban-jin, or 'southern barbarians', as the Portuguese were called, was soon overshadowed by the exotic appeal of these curious visitors. The fascination aroused by the arrival of Europeans is revealed in many aspects of late 16th- and early 17th-century Japanese visual culture, most dramatically in screens that depict the arrival of a Portuguese vessel into a Japanese port. In an example from our collection, the artist has emphasised the strange physical features and seemingly outlandish dress of the Europeans, who are shown with long noses and balloon-like trousers.
Six fold screen depicting arrival of a Portuguese Ship, maker unknown, 1600 – 30, Nhật bản. Museum no. 803-1892. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Six fold screen depicting arrival of a Portuguese ship (detail), maker unknown, 1600 – 30, Nhật bản. Museum no. 803-1892. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Screens such as this were painted, not in Nagasaki, but in Kyoto and as such, they reflected the imagination of the painter rather than a specific reality. The theme of the painting follows traditional Japanese iconography. The Portuguese vessel represents a treasure ship (takarabune) bringing wealth and happiness from overseas, while the Europeans themselves were viewed as almost supernatural beings and the bearers of good fortune. Images of nanban-jin occur on objects such as stirrups, mirrors and flasks used by the ruling elite of Nhật bản. A fashion even developed for dressing up in 'southern barbarian' style.
The items the Portuguese brought with them had a real impact on Japanese politics and power in the years of the Momoyama (1573 – 1615) and early Edo (1615 – 1868) periods. The Portuguese had arrived in 1543 armed with matchlock guns, which a time of civil war in Nhật bản, made them particularly welcome. Nhật bản's feuding warlords were quick to recognise the power of this new weapon, and within a decade the guns were being produced in large numbers. Traditional Japanese armour was relatively ineffective against the gun, so heavy western plate-armour was copied and sometimes even adapted by armourers to a more Japanese style.
Helmet, about 1590 – 1610; neck-guard, about 1750, Nhật bản. Museum no. 57-1889. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London The arrival of Christianity also had a profound effect on Nhật bản. The Catholic mission founded by Xavier was one of the most successful in Asia. By the early 1590s there were an estimated 215,000 Japanese Christians. At that time the Imperial Regent of Nhật bản, Toyotomi Hideoshi (1537 – 98), began to sense that an allegiance to God would threaten his own authority and so issued a decree in 1587 expelling all Christians. This edict was never carried out but persecutions and executions of Christians occurred under the later rule of Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542 – 1616) and his successors. Following a failed Christian uprising in 1637 – 38, all Japanese Christians were forced to renounce their religion or be executed. From 1639, under the sakoku ('closed country') policy all Portuguese were forbidden from entering the country.
The Portuguese weren't the only Europeans to establish trade in Nhật bản. The first Dutch ship arrived in 1600, and in 1609 the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC) established a trading factory in Hirado. Following the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1639, the Dutch became the only Europeans allowed to remain in Nhật bản. They were forced to move to Dejima, a tiny artificial island in Nagasaki Bay, where they were kept under close scrutiny.
Hand-scroll depicting the Dutch factory Dejima (detail), maker unknown, about 1800, Nagasaki, Nhật bản. Museum no. D.151-1905. ©
Victoria and Albert Museum, London The principal purpose of trade with Nhật bản was to obtain gold, silver and copper, of which the country had valuable deposits. However, the luxury goods produced by Nhật bản's craftsmen also had immediate appeal and soon became a significant part of the goods that were transported back to Europe. Lacquer was virtually unknown in the West this time, and the Portuguese, marvelling its lustre and decorative potential, began to commission lacquer objects designed to appeal to the European market.
Tankard, unknown maker, 1600 – 20, Kyoto, Nhật bản. Museum no. FE.23-1982. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London By Japanese standards, nanban lacquer (lacquerware intended for the European market) was made with comparatively little time and care. There are examples though of high-quality objects that were made for the Dutch during the 1630s and early 1640s, such as a document box made for Anton van Diemen, Governor General of the Dutch East Indies from 1636 to 1645. This piece is distinguished by the use of complex and elaborate lacquer techniques and a decorative theme derived from Japanese classical literature.
The Van Diemen Box, document box, maker unknown, 1636 – 39, Nhật bản. Museum no. W.49-1916. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London Lacquer though was always secondary in importance to porcelain. First made in Nhật bản in and around the town of Arita, in the northern part of Kyushu, in the early 17th century, porcelain differed greatly from ceramics previously made in Nhật bản. Both the use of the material and the way it was decorated owed much to the influence of China and Korea. By the 1660s Dutch traders in Nhật bản were ordering tens of thousands of pieces a year. The decoration on Japanese blue-and-white export porcelain of the 17th century closely followed Chinese models, with some pieces also incorporating the initials VOC, the monogram of the Dutch East India Company. Shapes were often European in form, the tankard being the most popular.
(Left to right:) Vase, unknown maker, 1660 – 80, Arita, Nhật bản; Dish with VOC monogram, unknown maker, 1660 – 80, Arita, Nhật bản; Tankard, 1680 – 1700, Arita, Nhật bản. Museum nos. 2737-1852, 3-1886 & C.416-1918. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London Another popular type of Japanese porcelain was Kakiemon ware. These were characterised by simple, asymmetrical designs, using bright colours on a fine white ground that were applied onto the glazed surface and fired again a lower temperature. Several independent enamelling studios were active in Arita, one was owned by the Kakiemon family from whom the whole category of ware takes its name. Kakiemon ware was the costliest and most sought-over type of Japanese porcelain exported to Europe and was widely copied by Dutch, German, French and English ceramic factories.
(Left to right:) Kakiemon-style dish with 'Three Friends of Winter' design, 1690 – 1720, Arita, Nhật bản. Museum no. FE.83-1970, © Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Saucer, Meissen porcelain factory, 1729 – 1731. Museum no. C.575&A-1922, © Victoria and Albert Museum,
London; Plate with partridge design, Bow porcelain factory, London, about 1755. Museum no. C.1005-1924, © Victoria and Albert Museum, London European influence on Nhật bản
Despite the restrictions placed on foreign trade and relations, Nhật bản in the period after 1639 was not entirely closed to foreign influence. After 1720, when the Shogun (military ruler) Tokugawa Yoshimune (1684 – 1751) relaxed the rules regarding the importation of foreign books, the Dutch and their goods, including the scientific knowledge they brought with them, were the subject of both scholarly inquiry and popular interest.
The latter half of the 18th century saw the development of rangaku or 'Dutch learning', which represented an important alternative to dominant intellectual practices derived from China. Nagasaki was the obvious focus for Japanese interest in the Dutch, but most who visited the city in the hope of seeing the Europeans left disappointed as access to Dejima was limited to local officials and courtesans. They could, however, purchase a pictorial souvenir of their visit to the port, in the form of a painting or, more commonly, a woodblock print.
Although only merchants, the Dutch were accorded the rare honour of regular audiences with the Shogun. While in the Shogun capital, the Dutch were lodged the Nagasaki-ya. The famous image by Katsushika Hokusai (1760 – 1849) reveals the excitement their presence created among the residents of the city.
Places of Entertainment in the Eastern capital, Katsushika Hokusai, 1802, Edo, Nhật bản. Museum no. E.2675-1925. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London The taste for 'Dutch things' was widespread and varied, with images of Europeans appearing on fashionable accessories such as combs, inro (traditional Japanese case for holding small objects) and netsuke (miniature sculptures). For most people, rangaku represented the new and fashionable.
In understanding Japanese culture, emphasis is often placed on the polarity between 'native' and 'foreign', but it is also one of successful assimilation and absorption. The Dutch, like the Portuguese before them, had a significant impact on the cultural realities of Edo-period Nhật bản. At the same time they continued to signify an 'other' world, but not so much a world without, as an alternative world within: an imaginary space of excitement, entertainment and exoticism.
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Background image: Hand-scroll depicting the Dutch factory Dejima (detail), maker unknown, about 1800, Nagasaki, Nhật bản. Museum no. D.151-1905. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
What was one of the main criticisms of the early models of the diffusion of innovations?
There are several limitations of Diffusion of Innovation Theory, which include the following: Much of the evidence for this theory, including the adopter categories, did not originate in public health and it was not developed to explicitly apply to adoption of new behaviors or health innovations.What is it called when every individual in society decides to adopt an innovation by themselves?
2. What is it called when every individual in society decides to adopt an innovation by themselves? Collective innovation-decision.When an individual decides to start using an innovation to achieve a specific goal this is referred to as diffusion?
The diffusion of innovation model refers to the five-step process by which an individual decides to adopt an innovation. The steps are knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. Adopters are groups of people who adopt an idea a certain speed.Which of the following factors is central for the diffusion of innovations?
Factors that affect the rate of innovation diffusion include the mix of rural to urban within a society's population, the society's level of education, and the extent of industrialization and development. Tải thêm tài liệu liên quan đến nội dung bài viết The first few centuries of Japans relationship with guns are a good example of what