Thủ Thuật Hướng dẫn What is the main advantage of contrived observation compared with other types of observational research )? Quizlet? 2022
Bùi Ngọc Chi đang tìm kiếm từ khóa What is the main advantage of contrived observation compared with other types of observational research )? Quizlet? được Cập Nhật vào lúc : 2022-10-01 07:36:22 . Với phương châm chia sẻ Kinh Nghiệm về trong nội dung bài viết một cách Chi Tiết 2022. Nếu sau khi Read tài liệu vẫn ko hiểu thì hoàn toàn có thể lại phản hồi ở cuối bài để Admin lý giải và hướng dẫn lại nha.Nội dung chính
- What is the main advantage of contrived observation compared with other types of observational?What is the main advantage of a naturalistic observation technique quizlet?What is one advantage of observational research quizlet?What is a distinct advantage of naturalistic observation quizlet?
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Experimental factorial design
a design with two or more IVs that are manipulated and in which participants are randomly assigned to IV levels
(May involve quasi-independent variables (e.g., age, gender) that are not manipulated.)
Example: Game Violence x Gender (2 factor design)
Advantages to a factorial design
- creates a more
realistic situation than examining a single factor in isolation
- can see how individual factors as well as the group of factors, acting together, influence behavior
Structure of a Two‐Factors Experiment
Factorial design: a research design that includes two or more factors (IVs):
• A two-factor design has two IVs
ex. 2*3 design with a total of 6 levels
(1 factor = 1 individual variable)
Representation in a data matrix
The levels of one factor determine the columns, and the levels of the second factor determine the rows.
Each cell corresponds to a separate treatment condition (i.e., a specific combination of the factors).
Data provide three separate and distinct sets of information.
Describes how the two factors independently and jointly affect behavior.
ex.
A1 A2
B1 M=20
M=40
B2 M=30 M=50
main effects and interactions
both use the assumption of a second independent variable. on a graph main effect looks like two parallel lines while lines that aren't parallel suggest an interaction
Interaction Between Factors
•Independent factors have no interaction (previous table).
•Interaction: One factor has a direct influence on the effect of a second factor.
occurs whenever two factors, acting together, produce mean differences that are not explained by the main effects of the two factors
Graphing the results of a two‐factor study (line graph)
• Parallel lines (lines that don't' cross or converge) indicate no interaction between two factors.
• Nonparallel lines (lines that cross or converge) indicate an interaction between two factors.
Identifying an Interaction in a Data Matrix
Compare the mean differences in any individual row with the mean differences in other rows (applies to columns also)
• No interaction: The size and the direction of the differences in one row are the same as the corresponding differences in other rows.
• Interaction: Differences change from one row to another.
Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions
A statistical test is necessary to determine whether the main effect or the interaction is significant.
• Be careful about interpreting the outcome.
• Main effects may present a distorted view of the actual outcome.
• Each main effect is an average: It may not accurately represent any of the individual effects that were used to compute the average.
Mixed Designs (Between and Within)
• A factorial study that combines two different research designs
• Used when one factor is expected to produce large order effects
• A common example of a mixed design is a factorial study with one between-subjects factor and one within-subjects factor
Mixed: experimental and nonexperimental or quasi‐experimental research strategies
• A factorial study for which all the factors are non-manipulated, quasi-independent variables
• Note: the non-manipulated variables are still called factors
Higher-Order Factorial Designs
The basic concepts of a two-factor research design can be extended to more complex designs involving three or more factors
• For example: A x B x C • 3 factors
• 3 2-way interactions (AxB, BxC, AxC)
• 1 3-way interaction (AxBxC)
Example: Academic performance scores for two different teaching methods (factor A), for boys versus girls (factor B), and for first-grade versus second-grade classes (factor C).
In a 3 x 4 factorial design there are ________ main effect(s) and ________ interaction(s) possible.
two; one
How many independent variables are there in an experimental two-factor design?
two
A researcher who is examining the effects of temperature and humidity on the eating behavior of rats uses a factorial experiment comparing three different temperatures (70˚, 80˚, and 90˚) and two humidity conditions (low and high). How many treatments or experimental conditions are in the experiment?
six
The following data represent the means for each treatment condition in a two-factor experiment. What pattern of results is shown in the data?
A1 A2
B1 M=20 M=40
B2 M=30 M=50
Main effects for both factors and no interaction
When the means for a two-factor study are displayed in a graph and the lines in the graph are parallel, what can you conclude about the main effects and interaction?
There is no interaction between factors.
The following data show the means for four treatment conditions as well as the overall means for the columns and the rows. For these data, what numbers are compared to assess the main effect of factor A?
A1 A2
B1 M=20 M=60 M=40
B2 M=30 M=70 M=50
M=25 M=65
25; 65
A researcher who is examining the effects of temperature and humidity on the eating behavior of rats uses a factorial experiment comparing three different temperatures (70˚, 80˚, and 90˚) and two humidity conditions (low and high). The experiment has ________ level(s) for the temperature factor and a total of ________ treatment conditions.
three; six
Which of the following correctly describes a research study comparing problem-solving ability for girls versus boys under three different levels of temperature?
2x3 design
A researcher who is examining the effects of temperature and humidity on the eating behavior of rats uses a factorial experiment comparing three different temperatures (70˚, 80˚, and 90˚) and two humidity conditions (low and high). How many factors are in the experiment?
two
A graph of a two-factor study indicates an interaction when the lines on the graph ________.
cross or converge
The following data represent the means for each treatment condition in a two-factor experiment. Note that one mean is not given. What value for the missing mean would result in no A x B interaction?
B1 B2
A1 M=20 M=30
A2 M=10 M=
20
The following data represent the means for each treatment condition in a two-factor experiment. Note that one mean is not given. What value for the missing mean would result in no main effect for factor B?
B1 B2
A1 M=20 M=10
A2 M=40 M=
50
Which of the following is the correct description for a research study comparing problem-solving scores obtained under three different levels of temperature?
single-factor design
The following data represent the means for each treatment condition in a two-factor experiment. Note that one mean is not given. What value for the missing mean would result in no A x B interaction?
B1 B2
A1 M=10 M=20
A2 M= M=50
40
The following data represent the means for each treatment condition in a two-factor experiment. Note that one mean is not given. What value for the missing mean would result in no main effect for factor A?
B1 B2
A1 M=20 M=30
A2 M=40 M=
10
In a factorial experiment, the number of factors is the number of _____________ variables.
independent
The following data show the means for four treatment conditions as well as the overall means for the columns and the rows. For these data, what numbers are compared to assess the main effect of factor B?
A1 A2
B1 M=20 M=60 M=40
B2 M=30 M=70 M=50
M=25 M=65
40; 50
A researcher who is examining the effects of temperature and humidity on the eating behavior of rats uses a factorial experiment comparing three different temperatures (70˚, 80˚, and 90˚) and two humidity conditions (low and high). How many factors are in the experiment?
two
Goal and definition of the correlational research strategy
•to establish that a relationship exists between variables, e.g., income and weight for both men and women
•describe the nature of the relationship (direction and form), e.g., negative linear relationship for women; positive linear relationship for men
•and to measure the strength of the relationship.
(-There is no attempt to manipulate, control, or interfere with the variables.
-Relationships can be described, not explained.
-It does not determine cause-and-effect relationship.)
Correlational versus experimental research strategies
• Correlational research: Intended to demonstrate the existence of a relationship between two (or more) variables.
• It does not determine cause-and-effect relationship.
• Experimental research: Demonstrates a cause-and effect relationship between two (or more) variables.
• Manipulation of IV: control for directionality of the problem (cause-effect)
• Control of confounding variables: control alternative explanations (internal validity
Correlational versus differential research strategies (non-experimental)
• Correlational research: involves two or more scores for each single source.
• Differential research: involves two groups or more of scores and focuses on the difference between groups (non-equivalent groups).
• Both research strategies cannot determine cause-and-effect relationship.
Evaluating relationships for numerical scores and ranks (XY pairs and scatter plots)
• Scores in each pair are identified as X and Y.
• Data can be presented in a list showing the two scores for each individual.
• Scores can be shown in a scatter plot graph.
• Each individual's score is shown as a single dot with a horizontal coordinate (X) and a vertical coordinate (Y)
correlation coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
• The direction of the relationship (→)
• The form (or shape) of the relationship (→)
• The consistency or strength of the relationship (→)
positive relationship
as one variable increases, the other variable increases
negative relationship
an association between two variables in which one increases while the other decreases
no relationship
no systematic relationship between the two variables.
(as one variable increases the other stays the same)
monotonic relationship
A relationship represented by a line that is continually increasing (or decreasing), but perhaps not in a straight line.
(The data points in the scatter plot tend to cluster around a straight line.
Linear variables increase (or decrease) in the same direction the same rate.)
(Positive and Negative) linear relationship
The data points in the scatter plot tend to cluster around a straight line. Linear variables increase (or decrease) in the same direction the same rate.
non-linear relationship
A relationship that graphs as a curved line
(The variables increase (or decrease) in the same direction but not always the same rate. e.g., practice and performance)
curvilinear relationship
a relationship between two variables whereby the strength and/or direction of their relationship changes over the range of both variables
(u-curved)
Relationships for Non‐Numerical Scores from Nominal Scales
Typically, a correlation (or correlation coefficient) is a numerical value that measures and describes the relationship between 2 (or more) numerical variables. e.g., amount of anxiety and performance, hours of study and grades,...
solve by:
No graph representation
assign an arbitrary number
Use a chi-square test instead of correlational test
predicting one variable from another
• By establishing and describing the existence of a relationship, correlational studies provide the basic information needed to make predictions.
e.g., college administrators can use the relationship between SAT scores and future Grade Point Average in college to help predict which applicants are most likely to be successful students.
• The two variables:
• Predictor variable: the first variable (e.g., SAT scores, GPA)
• Relatively simple and well defined
• Criterion variable: the second variable (being explained or predicted)
• Relatively complex and unknown (e.g., academic success)
• Regression: The statistical process for using one variable to predict another. • Goal: to find the equation that produces the most accurate predictions of Y (the criterion variable) for each value of X (the predictor variable)
Reliability and Validity
Both reliability and validity are commonly defined by relationships that are established using the correlational research design.
Reliability
evaluates the consistency or stability of the measurements.
Examples:
• Test-retest reliability: defined by the correlation between an original set of measurements and a follow-up set of measurements.
• Inter-rater reliability: agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.
Validity
evaluates the extent to which the measurement procedure actually measures what it claims to be measuring.
Examples:
• Concurrent validity: Scores obtained from the new measure are directly related to scores obtained from a more established measure of the same variable.
• Convergent validity (construct validity): a strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct
evaluating theories
• Many theories generate research questions about the relationships between variables that can be addressed by the correlational research design.
Example:
-Is intelligence primarily an inherited characteristic, or is it primarily determined by environment?
-correlational studies examining the IQs of identical twins separated birth and placed in different environments
Strengths of the Correlational Research Strategy
•Often used for the preliminary work in an area that has not received a lot of research attention.
•Non-intrusive: Investigate variables that would be impossible or unethical to manipulate.
•Study natural behaviors.
•High external validity (generalization)
Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy
•Low internal validity: there are alternative explanations.
• The third-variable problem (confounding variables)
•The directionality problem (Cannot assess causality, i.e. cause-effect relationships)
Goal of the descriptive research design
• Measure a variable or set of variables as they exist naturally.
• Not concerned with relationships between variables
(Useful as preliminary research • Help capture interesting, naturally occurring behavior)
Observational research
The researcher observes and systematically records the behavior of individuals to describe their behavior.
Example:
mating behavior of birds, parent-child interactions, shopping behavior of adolescents in a mall.
survey research
•Survey research design: research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals.
• Results describe the variables being studied
Case Study Research
In-depth study and detailed description of a single individual (or a very small group)
• May involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher.
frequency method
a method used to quantify observations made in a study by counting the number of times a behavior occurs during a fixed or predetermined period of time
duration method
recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a specific behavior during a fixed-time observation period
interval method
Dividing observation period into a series of intervals and recording behavior during each interval (balance frequency and duration).
content alalysis
Measures the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television programs, or similar truyền thông presenting replicas of behaviors.
archival research
Looking historical records (archives) to measures behaviors or events that occurred in the past.
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Limitations:
• time consuming
• the observer must take extra care not to disrupt or influence the behavior being observed.
participant observation
a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities
Example:
studying gang behavior
Limitations:
• time consuming
• potentially dangerous for the observer
• observer may inadvertently alter participants' behavior by directly interacting with them
• by interacting with the participants and identifying closely with the individuals in the study, an observer may lose objectivity
contrived observation
Observation in which the investigator creates an artificial environment in order to test a hypothesis.
Example:
to observe the eating behaviors of birds, a researcher could set up a bird feeder
• Common on developmental psychologists, ethologists.
Advantage:
•Waiting time is reduced
Disadvantage:
• because the environment is less natural, the behavior may be as well (less external
vailidity)
Strengths of the Observational Research Design
• The researcher observes and records actual behavior (instead of subjective reports: surveys).
• High external validity
• Flexibility: comprehensive observation of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences of the behaviors (instead of examining a single, discrete behavior).
Weakness of the Observational Research Design
• Ethical concern about spying on people (privacy violation).
• They simply describe behavior and do not examine its causes.
Survey research design goal
a "snapshot" of the individuals being studied a particular time.
Example:
companies seeking accurate descriptions of their customers eating behavior in teenagers alcohol use a
local high school political preference
open-ended questions
questions that allow respondents to answer however they want
Advantages:
It allows an individual the greatest flexibility in choosing how to answer.
Disadvantages:
It allows an individual the greatest flexibility in choosing how to answer.
• Difficult to summarize, organize, and compare the responses.
• Difficult to analyze with conventional statistical methods.
• Limited by a participant's ability or willingness to express his or her thoughts.
restricted questions
Present a limited number of response alternatives, restricting the response possibilities.
Example:
A multiple choice question, T/F question, matching question
Advantages:
easy to analyze and summarize.
• Typically, data is tabulated and reported as percentages or proportions of participants selecting each alternative.
• It is possible to obtain quantitative information from restricted questions by using an ordered set of response alternatives (close to a rating scale):
Rating Scale Questions
Require selection of a numerical value on a predetermined scale.
Example:
A Likert-Type Rating Scale
Advantages:
• Produce numerical values that can be treated as measurements from an interval scale: easy to compute means to describe different groups of participants.
• Allow standard statistical procedures to summarize and interpret results.
• Participants usually find them easy to understand and easy to answer.
• Collect a lot of data on a variety of different topics in a single, relatively efficient survey.
Disadvantages:
• Response set: participants tend to use the
same response to answer all (or most) of the questions (e.g., if participants do not feel strongly about any of the items, or finish quickly).
General Guidelines for Constructing a Survey
• Demographic questions (age, gender, level of education, etc.) the end (or beginning if 'branching')
• Sensitive questions should be placed in the middle of the survey.
• Group the questions with same topic or same format.
• Format should be relatively simple and uncluttered.
• Vocabulary and language style should be easy to understand
•Select survey participants who accurately represent the target population.
External validity (sample must be representative of the population)
Stengths and weaknesses of Survey Design
In general
Strengths:
-flexibility
Surveys typically provide a relatively easy and efficient means of gathering a large amount of information.
Weaknesses:
-Sampling bias
Nonresponse bias in the sample: Individuals who return/answer surveys are usually not representative of the entire group who receives them.
Low response rates
Responses to survey questions can be difficult to analyze or summarize.
Information obtained is always a self-report (Quality of a survey study depends on the accuracy and truthfulness of the participants.)
Administering a Survey (Strengths and Weaknesses)
Internet - efficient, access to large number of people, can be individualized. Cannot control the sample and maybe expensive
Mail - convenient and anonymous, nonthreatening, and easy to administer. Can be expensive, low response rate and can be bias, unsure of who completes the survey.
Telephone - can be conducted from home/office. Time consuming, potential interviewer bias
In-person - flexible, efficient with groups, and 100% response rate. Time consuming with individuals and risk of interviewer bias
Goal and definition of the case study design
goal is simply to obtain a description of the individual.
Applications of the Case Study Design
Rare phenomena and unusual clinical cases
• Gaining information about mental disorders such as multiple personality disorder
• Studying individuals with brain injuries and their underlying neurological mechanisms
Example:
E.P. and the role of hippocampus in creating new memories
Case studies as counterexamples
• Demonstrating an exception to the rule
• Via a detailed description of a single individual or group
Example: Individuals with endless autobiographical memories
Goal and definition of the single‐subject designs
experimental research designs that use the results from a single participant (or subject).
• Goal: Demonstrate that manipulation of one variable (the treatment) causes a change in a second variable (the participant's behavior).
Relation of Single‐Subject Designs to Other Research Designs
General methodology of single-subject designs incorporates elements of case study research and time-series designs
• A set of observations made before treatment is contrasted with a set of observations made during or after treatment.
• Single subject designs are capable of demonstrating cause-and-effect relationships (experimental designs).
phase
Series of observations of the same individual under the same conditions. Pattern that describes the individual's behavior.
Baseline observations
observations made when no treatment is being administered
Treatment observations
observations made when a treatment is being administered
level
In s single-case research study, the overall magnitude for a series of observations.
A consistent level occurs when measurements in a series are all approximately the same magnitude.
trend
In a single-case research study, a consistent difference in direction and magnitude from one measurement to the next in a series.
stability
The degree to which a series of observations shows a consistent level or trend.
ABAB reversal design
consists of four phases:
A baseline phase (A), followed by treatment (B), then a return to baseline (A), and finally a repetition of the treatment phase (B).
Goal: to demonstrate that the treatment causes changes in the participant's behavior. It needs to show that
Limitations:
Cause-effect interpretation depends on the reversal (return to baseline)
• But withdrawing treatment in the middle of the experiment can create some practical and ethical problems: withdrawing a successful treatment. (Explain is temporary. Eventually, the client must return to a normal life (treatment is stopped)
Withdrawing treatment may not result in a change in behavior: long-lasting effect of treatment. (ABAB design is not appropriate for evaluating treatments that are expected to have a permanent or long-lasting effect.)
In single-subject research, a group of observations of the same individual under the same conditions is known as a ____________.
phase
A treatment phase is defined as ________.
A series of observations made when a treatment is being administered
In a single-subject experimental design, if there is low variability from one observation to the next within a phase, the data are ____________.
stable
A researcher reports a positive relationship between sugar consumption and activity level for a group of 7-year-old children. Based on this relationship, which of the following conclusions is justified?
Children who consume more sugar tend to exhibit higher activity levels.
Dr. Jones hopes to demonstrate that children who eat a more nutritious breakfast also tend to have more academic success than their peers. If this result is obtained, then ____________ would be the predictor variable and ____________ would be the criterion variable for the study.
the nutrition in the breakfast; the level of success
Which of the following pairs of variables should produce a negative relationship?
Number of hours studying and number of errors on a math exam
A researcher determines the amount of sugar in each child's diet by interviewing the children's parents. Then the researcher watches the children on a playground to obtain measurements of their level of activity. The researcher hopes to demonstrate that sugar intake is related to activity level. This researcher is using the
correlational research strategy
Which observational research design has the greatest risk that the observer will influence the behaviors being observed?
participant observation
An advantage of single-subject designs compared to traditional group designs is that
-they allow for an experiment to be conducted on a single individual.
-they are valuable in clinical settings.
-they can be used with one participant.
In single-subject research, what is the definition of a phase change?
a change from baseline to treatment or from treatment to baseline
In an ABAB design, the critical element for demonstrating that the treatment causes changes in behavior is
the change from the initial baseline to the initial treatment phase.
What is the main advantage of contrived observation (compared with other types of observational research)?
It is more efficient because the researcher does not have to wait for specific behaviors to occur naturally.
Which example illustrates a positive correlation?
Salary level decreases as educational level decreases.
A college professor reports that students who finish exams early tend to get better grades than students who hold on to exams until the last possible moment. The correlation between exam score and amount of time spent on the exam is an example of a ____________.
negative correlation
When students apply to colleges, they usually are required to submit SAT scores along with their applications. College officials know that there is a good relationship between scores on the SAT and success in college. In this situation, success in college is the
criterion variable
A researcher reports an inverse relationship between weight and exercise level for a group of 8-year-old children (greater weight is associated with less exercise). However, the researcher cannot be sure whether the extra weight is preventing the children from exercising or whether the lack of exercise is leading to greater weight. This is an example of
the directionality problem.
test-restest reliability
defined by the correlation between an original set of measurements and a follow-up set of measurements
inter-rater reliability
agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors
concurrent validity
scores obtained from the new measure are directly related to scores obtained from a more established measure of the same variable
convergent validity (construct validity)
Strong relationship between the scores obtained from two (or more) different methods of measuring the same construct
predictor variable
The first variable
Criterion Variable (dependent variable)
the second variable (being explained or predicted)
Regression
the statistical process for using one variable to predict another
What is the main advantage of contrived observation compared with other types of observational?
The main advantage of contrived observation is that the researcher does not have to wait for the behavior of interest to occur - he arragnes conditions so it is guaranteed to occur. This, it tends to be less time-consuming than other observational approaches.What is the main advantage of a naturalistic observation technique quizlet?
Terms in this set (4) A major advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows researchers to observe people in their natural surroundings.What is one advantage of observational research quizlet?
The advantage of observational data collection in laboratory settings is that: extraneous events disrupting observations are more easily controlled.What is a distinct advantage of naturalistic observation quizlet?
The advantage of naturalistic observation is that it represents exactly what happens naturally. Tải thêm tài liệu liên quan đến nội dung bài viết What is the main advantage of contrived observation compared with other types of observational research )? Quizlet?