Kinh Nghiệm Hướng dẫn What type of evolution is pesticide resistance? Mới Nhất
Hà Quang Phong đang tìm kiếm từ khóa What type of evolution is pesticide resistance? được Update vào lúc : 2022-12-14 05:40:20 . Với phương châm chia sẻ Kinh Nghiệm Hướng dẫn trong nội dung bài viết một cách Chi Tiết 2022. Nếu sau khi đọc tài liệu vẫn ko hiểu thì hoàn toàn có thể lại Comments ở cuối bài để Ad lý giải và hướng dẫn lại nha.You currently have no access to view or tải về this content. Please log in with your institutional or personal account if you should have access to this content through either of these. Showing a limited preview of this publication:
Nội dung chính Show- Arbovirus EvolutionInterrupting TransmissionTransposable Elements and Insecticide ResistanceA The rate of evolutionProteomics in Pesticide ToxicologyGene Editing in Plants2.2.1 Global and Local Gene Drives in PlantsBasic Science and Evolutionary BiologyFood SecurityPheromones and Other Chemical Communication in Animals☆Exploiting Chemical Communication for Agriculture and MedicinePowdery Mildew☆Control by ChemicalsHow is pesticide resistance an example of evolution?Is pesticide resistance evolution?What type of selection is pesticide resistance?Is pesticide resistance An example of microevolution?
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There are certainly numerous anatomical differences between people around the world, differences that have come about through isolation from other groups. Those who dwell in cold climates, for example, generally have a stockier build. Those who evolved in equatorial areas often have darker skin.
To understand human populations, we must understand the basic biological concepts involving mutations, variability, isolation, and speciation. Mutations occur in all groups of organisms (Hastings et al., 2009). Mutations result in population variability. Over time, the process of natural selection molds a group of organisms to best comply with environmental stresses.
With isolation between groups, mutations cause the populations to not only vary within their group but also to develop greater differences between isolated groups. Many of the differences are superficial, for example, anatomical differences between different ethnic groups. However, the longer the groups are isolated from one another, the greater the differences will become. Eventually, when differences involve dramatic changes in the groups’ genome, they become genetically incompatible. The ultimate result of continued mutations, variation, and isolation is speciation (formation of separate species).
All humans (without considering sexual differences) are 99.9% genetically identical (Sanchez-Mazas, 2008). While they established different groups during their emigrations within Africa and dispersal out of Africa, they never reached a point of developing more than superficial tribal traits. They all remain genetically compatible and differ most in superficial anatomical features and cultural traits.
All contemporary humans have evolved from African stock, and as a species, they have lived in Africa throughout most of their evolution. Thus, there is more human genetic diversity in Africa than anywhere else on Earth (Pennisi, 2007). Starting with 14 initial ancestral population clusters, certain humans from these clusters emigrated and dispersed to various African sites over time. Human genetic diversity changes in native populations with emigrational and dispersal distance from their original sites, their differences being the result of bottlenecks (evolutionarily difficult periods and stresses) during human movements.
Only a small part of Africa’s population dispersed out of the continent, and thus only part of the original African genetic compliment went with them. There are certain African populations that harbor genetic alleles that are not found anywhere else in the world. In addition, all the common alleles found in populations outside of Africa are found in the African continent.
Most human biological variation (especially evident in anatomical features) is based on clines (variations from one side of a population to another) in which features blend gradually from one area to another (Begon, 2006). This is also the case with any widely distributed animal species. Each subpopulation on Earth which has anatomical differences shares a different clinal distribution pattern.
Human adaptability in different environments varies both from person to person and from subpopulation to subpopulation. The most efficient adaptive responses are found in geographical subpopulations where environmental stimuli are the strongest (e.g., high amounts of melanin in the skin being associated with peoples who spend a lot of time in the sun or Tibetans being highly adapted to high altitudes).
As with populations of other animals, if populations of humans would have remained isolated long enough, their differences would have resulted in speciation (the rise of new species). However, understanding clinal geographical genetic variation is further complicated by movements and mixing between human populations, which has been occurring since prehistoric times, deemphasizing group differences. As an example, contemporary humans travel around the globe, and they often share a complex mixing of genetic material and thus do not demonstrate the same patterns of variation through geography.
There is a statistical correlation between particular features in a population of humans because of a higher degree of sharing of genes, but different features are not expressed or inherited together. Thus, genes that code for superficial physical traits, for example, skin color, hair color, or height, represent a minuscule and insignificant portion of the human genome and may not correlate with genetic affinity. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not especially closely related to each other. Even within the same region, physical phenotype (genetic features we can see) is not related to genetic affinity: dark-skinned Ethiopians, for instance, are more closely related to light-skinned Armenians than to dark-skinned Bantu populations (Isichei, 1997).
Despite pygmy populations of Southeast Asia (Andamanese) having similar physical features with African pygmy populations, such as short stature, dark skin, and curly hair, they are not genetically closely related to these populations (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994). Genetic variants affecting superficial anatomical features (such as skin color), from a genetic perspective, are essentially meaningless; they involve a few hundred of the billions of nucleotides in a person’s DNA. Individuals with the same anatomy do not necessarily cluster with each other by lineage, and a given lineage does not include only individuals with the same trait complex.
Due to practices of group endogamy (the practice of marrying within a specific ethnic group, class, or social group), allele frequencies cluster locally around kin groups and lineages, or by national, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic boundaries, giving a detailed degree of correlation between genetic clusters and population groups when considering many alleles simultaneously (Sarich and Miele, 2004). Despite this, there are no genetic boundaries around local populations that biologically demarcate any discrete groups of humans. Although we recognize different phenotypic anatomical features in certain humans, human variation is actually continuous, with no clear points of demarcation. In contemporary times, there are no large clusters of relatively homogeneous people, and almost every individual has genetic alleles from several ancestral groups.
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Arbovirus Evolution
Kathryn A. Hanley, Scott C. Weaver, in Origin and Evolution of Viruses (Second Edition), 2008
Interrupting Transmission
Traditional, pesticide-based methods of vector control have become increasingly ineffective due to the evolution of pesticide resistance among vectors, reduction in vector control programs, societal resistance to the use of toxic and sometimes persistent chemicals, and increases in global travel, among other factors (Blair et al., 2000; Gubler, 2001, 2002) Beaty, 2005). The decline in the efficacy of pesticides has spurred a search for new approaches for interrupting arbovirus transmission. To this end, creation of genetically modified, arbovirus-resistant mosquitoes has been investigated as an alternative approach to arboviral disease control (Beaty, 2005; Blair et al., 2000; Olson et al., 2002). RNAi appears to a major mechanism of arbovirus replication modulation by mosquitoes (Sanchez-Vargas et al., 2004); for example, Keene and colleagues (2004) demonstrated that silencing the RNAi pathway in Anopheles gambiae makes this mosquito significantly more susceptible to O'nyong nyong virus (ONNV). Thus considerable effort has been devoted to the generation of siRNAs that can suppress arbovirus replication in vectors. siRNAs have been shown to inhibit the replication of the mosquito-borne DENV (Adelman et al., 2001; Caplen et al., 2002) and SFV (Caplen et al., 2002), as well as the tick-borne hazara virus (Garcia et al., 2005), in cultured mosquito and tick cells, respectively. Moreover, transgenic Ae. aegypti expressing DENV-derived siRNAs in the midgut are resistant to DENV infection (Franz et al., 2006). The cultural acceptability of transgenic vector release is questionable, best (Alphey et al., 2002). In the long term, vector resistance based on RNAi also faces the same potential stumbling block as therapeutic siRNAs, namely rapid evolution of virus resistance via selection for single nucleotide mismatches in the siRNA target site (Dykxhoorn and Lieberman, 2006; Deas et al., 2007; O'Brien, 2007). It is reasonable to suppose that the selection imposed on a targeted arbovirus population by a large population of vectors expressing siRNAs will be substantially stronger than treatment of a single patient with therapeutic siRNAs, and that the evolutionary response will be proportionally faster and more complete. As with therapeutic siRNAs, targeting vector-expressed siRNAs for resistance to multiple, conserved regions of the viral genome may enhance the chances for success. This assumes of course that the larger challenge to the use of transgenic mosquitoes, namely the development of a system to drive effector genes into the vector population (Scott et al., 2002; James, 2005), will be overcome.
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Transposable Elements and Insecticide Resistance
Wayne G. Rostant, ... David J. Hosken, in Advances in Genetics, 2012
A The rate of evolution
Given the evolutionary potential of TEs, perhaps it is not surprising that they play an important role in such key fitness traits as pesticide resistance. Over the past 100 years, there has been an increased use of toxic chemicals to control pest organisms, particularly from the 1950s onward (Wilson, 2001). This strong, pervasive source of selection has demonstrated the tremendous capacity of populations to evolve resistance to toxins. Since the first insecticide resistance case was reported almost a century ago (Melander, 1914), there have been thousands of cases of resistance in hundreds of species (Georghiou and Lagunes-Tejeda, 1991; Whalon et al., 2008). Some of the most dramatic examples of microevolution in action have come from selection for chemical resistance (Hartl and Clark, 1997), with resistance evolving in as few as 5–50 generations (May, 1985) and toward rapid global fixation in many insect pest populations (Catania et al., 2004; Schlenke and Begun, 2004; Whalon et al., 2008).
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Proteomics in Pesticide Toxicology
Su-wei Qi, Qing X. Li, in Hayes' Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (Third Edition), 2010
Conclusion
Proteomics is an emerging discipline in pesticide toxicology. It has gained acceptance in numerous areas of pesticide research, such as pesticide metabolism and mechanisms of toxicity. Proteomics has already begun to enhance understanding of mechanisms of pesticide resistance, mechanisms of toxic action, mode of action, and biodegradation of pesticides, and it has aided in the discovery of new effective and safe pesticides and in identification of biomarker proteins. However, there are challenges in proteomics methodologies, including extending the dynamic range to cover low- and high-abundant proteins and performing efficient protein quantitation and data mining. The diversity of potential and combinatorial post-translational modifications adds additional complexity in proteomics studies. Integration of proteomics with bioassays and other omics, such as genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, can certainly provide specific, comprehensive, and in-depth knowledge in pesticide toxicology. A major challenge has arisen to integrate proteomics with other omics technologies, particularly metabolomics, in which low-molecular-weight primary and secondary metabolites are key players in biodegradation. Despite the reported excellent success of proteomics in common model organisms, analyses of the complex proteomes and characterization of functional proteomes in species beyond the model species require much effort. The development of protein and genomic databases will facilitate the application of proteomics for other species. Streamlining protein preparation and fractionation with a suitable analytical technique (e.g., MS and NMR) is essential for extending the potential of proteomics to pesticide toxicology. Although MS-based approaches are very powerful for qualitative metaproteome investigations, there is a great need to develop and demonstrate improved approaches for quantitative measurements. Furthermore, the ability to characterize protein post-translational modifications is essential for a more comprehensive understanding of how a species of interest regulates proteins for functionality and toxic responses to pesticides. For microbial remediation purposes, proteo-arrays can detect binding of specific inhibitors or ligands with dioxygenases or monooxygenases. Key catabolic enzymes can be profiled to elucidate the network with neighboring proteins based on qualitative and quantitative estimation during in situ bioremediation. However, to date, no study has identified the global interactions involving proteins (i.e., interactomics) in an organism during bioremediation processes. In addition, the impact of single nucleotide polymorphisms on proteome analyses by MS requires further exploration. Further improvements in MS technology and methodology are of significance in life sciences, including pesticide toxicology. Finally, a need in MS-based proteomics is to make use of the enormous amount of data being generated. To analyze proteome data, one must understand the analytical procedures used to obtain the data and the statistical principles underlying multiple dimensional data. Proteomics is becoming an indispensable tool in pesticide toxicology.
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Gene Editing in Plants
Jeffrey D. Wolt, in Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science, 2022
2.2.1 Global and Local Gene Drives in Plants
The creation of gene drives in crop plants or livestock is of lesser concern than applications where gene drives are expressed in wild organisms under open release conditions—as may be the case if gene drives are used to eliminate invasive plant species or overcome pesticide resistance in weedy species.36 For domesticated plants and animals, there is limited opportunity for uncontrolled gene drive escape and dissemination because of long generation times and control of breeding lines which, respectively, reduce gene drive efficiency and provide a means to observe and remove undesired phenotypes which may be inadvertently developed. Additionally, since domesticated crops and food animals are not competitive with sexually incompatible wild species, the probability is low for environmental establishment of gene drive-bearing crops or livestock. For similar reasons, there is limited potential that dual-use gene drive occurrence in seed supply may be a food/feed security issue. The potential for inadvertent or purposeful entry of gene drives into the seed supply is particularly low for first world applications where there is channelization of commercial seed supply. In regions of the world where farmer seed saving and farmer-to-farmer seed exchange are common, the potential for plant gene drive transmission may be higher, but long generation times and opportunities to observe and segregate undesired phenotypes remain as mitigating factors. In addition, design of gene drive reversibility, whereby a second gene drive overwrites the earlier change and restores the original function to the targeted gene, is a concept that potentially mitigates against undesired gene drive occurrence in the environment.37
The forgoing discussion is directed mainly to global gene drives where there is the potential for unchecked gene drive transmission through populations. Local gene drives are self-limiting systems that control the extent that a gene drive can extend monoallelic transformations through a population and, therefore, represent a design approach that further reduces the possibility for unchecked gene drive transmission. A common example of a local gene drive system is the deployment of a gene drive using daisy chains where the CRISPR-mediated mechanism for monoallelic transformation is separated in a sequence of interdependent steps.38 A linear chain system consists of serially dependent drive elements that are unlinked and occur on separate chromosomes. The collection of elements is lost over time via natural selection. This breaks the chain to terminate monoallelic conversion, since individual elements of the chain cannot independently drive the transformation.38
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Basic Science and Evolutionary Biology
P.L.R. Brennan, in Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology, 2022
Food Security
Feeding a growing population given current climatic unpredictability is a central challenge of the twenty-first century. The emergence of high yield crops in the 1950s was made possible by the application of evolutionary principles to plant breeding. However, the use of monocultures and genetically modified (GMO) crops, bred to produce higher yields, requires heavy pesticide use, and in recent years, yields have suffered from the emergence of pesticide resistance in species that attack such crops (Hendry et al., 2011; Losos et al., 2013; Carroll et al., 2014). Heavy pesticide use has well-known detrimental effects to the environment and public health (Wilson and Tisdell, 2001). Further intensifying food production by continuing the current monoculture approach of both GMO and non-GMO crops is likely to cause more environmental damage. Therefore, an agricultural approach based on evolutionary theory and ecological principles that takes into account how the relationships between species affect their evolution offers a safer alternative for the environment. Such an approach can minimize the evolution of pesticide resistance and preserve biodiversity, while maintaining long-term productivity (Bommarco et al., 2013).
At the same time, selective breeding of crops that can cope with unpredictable climatic conditions resulting from global climate change will be crucial to producing enough crops to feed the world (Hendry et al., 2011; Losos et al., 2013; Carroll et al., 2014). This can involve the production of drought and flood tolerant genetically modified crops, as well as selective breeding and hybridization of crops that already have some resistance traits, such as flood-resistant rice currently cultivated in Bangladesh and India (Carroll et al., 2014).
An interesting and relatively new avenue for evolution to affect food production is to apply selection the level of the group rather than the individual. This approach decreases the individual fitness, but increases overall group productivity by decreasing selfish genes. This concept was applied to the breeding of poultry, where group selection to lower competitive interactions among laying hens resulted in higher egg-laying rates and lower mortality rates, and can also be applied to other domesticated animals (e.g., Wade et al., 2010). In food crops, genes that produce individually larger roots or leaves can be selected against to favor smaller roots and leaves that can result in a higher yield for the group (Carroll et al., 2014).
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Pheromones and Other Chemical Communication in Animals☆
Tristram D. Wyatt, in Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology, 2022
Exploiting Chemical Communication for Agriculture and Medicine
The importance of chemical communication in the lives of animals offers many opportunities for applied use in agriculture, forestry, and, potentially, medicine. These uses are now well established for insect pest control, but with a few exceptions, their use with vertebrates is only just beginning.
Mating disruption of pest moths in apple orchards by the release of synthetic female sex pheromone provides successful control of codling moth Cydia pomonella and other important pests of fruit. The synthetic pheromones seem to prevent males' and females' finding each other, so the females' eggs are not fertilized – and no caterpillars result. Pheromones are particularly useful where pesticide resistance has developed, as has occurred for many pests of cotton. Pheromones provide a way to get off the ‘pesticide treadmill,’ in which farmers find they have to use additional pesticides to control previously innocuous insects which become pests when their predators are killed by the earlier rounds of pesticides. The specificity of pheromones means that very small quantities can be used and that non-target species are not affected. Unlike pesticides, pheromones leave predators unharmed, so these methods are compatible with biological control measures.
Pest vertebrates too might be controlled by pheromones. The sea lamprey P. marinus has ravaged the Great Lakes fisheries in North America. Two lamprey pheromones, the male sex pheromone and the larval pheromone, are being explored to see whether they could be used to reduce lamprey populations by selective trapping or diversion. Mice and other pest rodents use pheromones for communication, and in the much longer term these perhaps could be used to control them.
An understanding of pheromone priming effects could be useful in animal husbandry to, for example, advance puberty and reduce the postpartum period in pigs, and end seasonal anestrus in sheep and goats. Artificial insemination requires knowledge of when estrus is about to occur – the predictive lordosis response of the female pig is more reliable if they are sprayed with synthetic male pheromone (5α-androstenone, Boar Mate). Fish priming pheromones could be used in aquaculture to replace the individual hormone injections given to male fish to stimulate sperm production before semen collection.
Pheromones may have a role to play in the future control of insect vectors of human diseases, such as the bloodsucking reduviid insects which carry Chagas disease. Nematodes, many of which cause human disease, use pheromones for communication, which might provide a route to control.
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Powdery Mildew☆
M. Linde, N. Shishkoff, in Reference Module in Life Sciences, 2022
Control by Chemicals
The asexual conidia are “clones” which are identical to the parent. However, they are produced in such abundance that chance mutations may occasionally occur, in perhaps 1 in a million spores. Of those mutated spores, perhaps one in a million has an advantageous mutation, such as a reduced sensitivity to a given fungicide. Of those spores, perhaps one in thousands lands on a rose leaf and infects. This may seem like poor odds for pesticide resistance to develop, but over the course of a season so many spores are produced that resistance will almost invariably develop in a few years unless growers alternate between different control methods to make sure that a spore that survives one method will be killed by the subsequent one. Therefore it is important to understand how each type of control measure works.
Many modern fungicides work by interfering with a single site in a metabolic pathway of the pathogen. If one uses a single fungicide to control powdery mildew, spraying frequently, the vast majority of spores will be killed. However, a single mutation altering the shape of one enzyme might be enough to endow a conidium with resistance. The mutant pathogen will have no competition for space on the now pristine rose leaves and will spread rapidly. Alternating between two pesticides in the same class is not much better than using a single fungicide, because the two fungicides have similar modes of action. Fungicides like strobilurins (Compass, Heritage and Cygnus) are not only less toxic to nontarget organisms than older fungicides, they have a different mode of action from older classes of chemicals like triazoles. Because they are also single-mode-of-action fungicides, they should not be used alone; they should be incorporated into a management scheme. One should alternate single-mode-of-action fungicides (like strobilurans and triazoles) with those having broader modes of action: copper compounds, sulphur compounds, bicarbonate salts, horticultural oils, antifungal plant extracts (such as neem extract, milsana and cinnamite), biocontrol agents (Ampelomyces quisqualis Cesati ex Schlechtendahl (AQ10 Biofungicide), Pseudozyma flocculosa (Traquair, LA Shaw & Jarvis) Boekhout & Traquair, Trichoderma harzianum Rifai (Topshield)), and activated-resistance compounds. Some of these may be phytotoxic, others are less effective than traditional fungicides, but many can be used effectively as one part of a management scheme. Biocontrol agents generally need higher levels of moisture to infect than the powdery mildews they parasitize, but under greenhouse conditions it may be possible to manipulate the environment to make them effective.
How is pesticide resistance an example of evolution?
We have simply caused pest populations to evolve, unintentionally applying artificial selection in the form of pesticides. Individuals with a higher tolerance for our poisons survive and breed, and soon resistant individuals outnumber the ones we can control.Is pesticide resistance evolution?
Furthermore, pesticide resistance is a key example of evolution in action, with rapid evolution under novel selective pressures (Palumbi, 2001), and has the potential to contribute to fundamental understanding of general evolutionary processes.What type of selection is pesticide resistance?
Pesticide resistance is the result of natural selection caused by the pesticide. Pests vulnerable to the pesticide die quickly, and therefore more resistant individuals stay alive. Also, naturally occurring genetic modification may produce individuals with resistance to the pesticide.Is pesticide resistance An example of microevolution?
Pesticide resistance, herbicide resistance, and antibiotic resistance are all examples of microevolution by natural selection. The enterococci bacteria, shown here, have evolved a resistance to several kinds of antibiotics. Tải thêm tài liệu liên quan đến nội dung bài viết What type of evolution is pesticide resistance?